
The basic principles for the Total Quality Management (TQM) philosophy of doing business are to satisfy the customer, satisfy the supplier, and continuously improve the business processes.
The first and major TQM principle is to satisfy the customer--the person who pays for the product or service. Customers want to get their money's worth from a product or service they purchase.
If the user of the product is different than the purchaser, then both the user and customer must be satisfied, although the person who pays gets priority.
A company that seeks to satisfy the customer by providing them value for what they buy and the quality they expect will get more repeat business, referral business, and reduced complaints and service expenses.
Some top companies not only provide quality products, but they also give extra service to make their customers feel important and valued.
Within a company, a worker provides a product or service to his or her supervisors. If the person has any influence on the wages the worker receives, that person can be thought of as an internal customer. A worker should have the mind-set of satisfying internal customers in order to keep his or her job and to get a raise or promotion.
Often in a company, there is a chain of customers, -each improving a product and passing it along until it is finally sold to the external customer. Each worker must not only seek to satisfy the immediate internal customer, but he or she must look up the chain to try to satisfy the ultimate customer.
A second TQM principle is to satisfy the supplier, which is the person or organization from whom you are purchasing goods or services.
A company must look to satisfy their external suppliers by providing them with clear instructions and requirements and then paying them fairly and on time.
It is only in the company's best interest that its suppliers provide it with quality goods or services, if the company hopes to provide quality goods or services to its external customers.
A supervisor must try to keep his or her workers happy and productive by providing good task instructions, the tools they need to do their job and good working conditions. The supervisor must also reward the workers with praise and good pay.
The reason to do this is to get more productivity out of the workers, as well as to keep the good workers. An effective supervisor with a good team of workers will certainly satisfy his or her internal customers.
One area of satisfying the internal suppler is by empowering the workers. This means to allow them to make decisions on things that they can control. This not only takes the burden off the supervisor, but it also motivates these internal suppliers to do better work.
The third principle of TQM is continuous improvement. You can never be satisfied with the method used, because there always can be improvements. Certainly, the competition is improving, so it is very necessary to strive to keep ahead of the game.
Some companies have tried to improve by making employees work harder. This may be counter-productive, especially if the process itself is flawed. For example, trying to increase worker output on a defective machine may result in more defective parts.
Examining the source of problems and delays and then improving them is what is needed. Often the process has bottlenecks that are the real cause of the problem. These must be removed.
Workers are often a source of continuous improvements. They can provide suggestions on how to improve a process and eliminate waste or unnecessary work.
There are also many quality methods, such as just-in-time production, variability reduction, and poka-yoke that can improve processes and reduce waste.
The principles of Total Quality Management are to seek to satisfy the external customer with quality goods and services, as well as your company internal customers; to satisfy your external and internal suppliers; and to continuously improve processes by working smarter and using special quality methods.
Austria | Belgium | Bangladesh | Canada |
China | Denmark | Egypt | France |
Finland | Germany | Greece | India |
Indonesia | Iran | Ireland | Italy |
Japan | South Korea | Lebanon | Libya |
Malta | Mauritius | Saudi Arabia | Singapore |
Poland | Romania | Switzerland | Thailand |
Sri Lanka | Sweden | Turkmenistan | U.K. |
Turkey | Tunisia | Kazakistan | U.A.E. |
U.S.A | | | |
Typical inputs | |
Technological | the technical activities which will have to be undertaken, maturity of technology, company's technological position |
Internal | potential technical success, familiarity with the area of the project, role of individuals and of different functions within the organization |
Financial | expected benefit, likely cost, both of project and consequent actions |
Market | size and attractiveness of the market, competitive position |
Business | clarification of objectives, fit with company's strategy, level of top-management support, key success factors |
Techniques | Short description |
Financial ratio methods |
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Cash flow analysis |
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Score index methods |
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Mathematical methods |
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Matrix methods |
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Check-lists |
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Relevance and decision trees |
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Multicriteria & table methods |
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QFD |
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Experience based methods |
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Vision |
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Corporate Objectives | Fits into the overall objectives and strategy Corporate image |
Marketing and Distribution | Size of potential market Capability to market product Market trend and growth Customer acceptance Relationship with existing markets Market share Market risk during development period Pricing trend, proprietary problem, etc. Complete product line Quality improvement Timing of introduction of new product Expected product sales life |
Manufacturing | Cost savings Capability of manufacturing product Facility and equipment requirements Availability of raw material Manufacturing safety |
Research and development | Likelihood of technical success Cost Development time Capability of available skills Availability of R&D resources Availability of R&D facilities Patent status Compatibility with other projects |
Regulatory and legal Factors | Potential product liability Regulatory clearance |
Financial | Profitability Capital investment required Annual (or unit) cost Rate of return on investment Unit price Payout period Utilization of assets, cost reduction and cash-flow |
Cash Outflow | Cash Inflow | Net Cash Flow | |
1997 | C0 | B0 | B1-C1 |
1998 | C1 | B1 | B2-C2 |
1999 | C2 | B2 | B3-C3 |
2000 | C3 | B3 | B4-C4 |
The process and timescales for processing cheques is a legacy from the times when banks did not have computers. It is essentially determined by how long it takes to move pieces of paper around the country (in the old days by trains, nowadays by motorcycle couriers and vans).
The process is illustrated below based on the example of a person called Hero paying a cheque into their own bank (Clearing Bank A) on day T but drawn on another Clearing Bank B.
In the Hero example, later on, the cheque bounces at Clearing Bank B and is returned for lack of funds but how that works is described in a later diagram. The key stages are described in sequence.
Our hero pays in the cheque and credit slip in a branch of his bank, Clearing Bank A. This cheque with all the other cheques deposited at the branch is couriered to a regional centre. In these regional centres the out-clearing is carried out. It essentially consists of the following tasks:
Clearing Bank A feeds the electronic credit record into its accounting systems (usually overnight). The bank will give customer access to the funds for interest and/or withdrawal purposes according to its own rules, credit policies and credit assessment of the person paying the money in. For an established customer with a good credit history they may give value and withdrawal for interest from the first day. For new account holders or customers they consider high risk they may give access to the funds for interest purposes from day T but not allow the customer to withdraw funds until four days later; when they are more certain the cheque will not bounce. In our case, Hero is credited with the value of the cheque in time for the morning of day T+1.
Clearing Bank A sends all its piles of cheques drawn on other banks in a van to the Central Exchange near Milton Keynes. There, the piles of cheques are given to vans from the other banks. They also give Clearing Bank A piles of cheques that have been paid in at their branches drawn on Clearing Bank A. We are now interested in Clearing Bank B’s van which has collected Hero’s cheque in a pile from Clearing Bank A at the Exchange Centre and this now returns to the In-Clearing Centre at Clearing Bank B.
In parallel with the physical exchange of cheques is an electronic exchange of files of payments in the form of IBDE files. These are transmitted over secure network connection from each clearing bank to another on a Bilateral basis.
Both the physical and electronic records have been exchanged by 11:00 am on the morning of Day T+1.
The physical cheques are received from the Exchange Centre at Clearing Bank B. These cheques are processed with three* aims in mind (Some banks make electronic image copies of the cheques here as well but this does not change the basic process.):
Once the file of incoming cheques has been verified against the IBDE file of incoming cheques the electronic file of payments is passed onto the accounting (usually overnight) of Clearing Bank B on the night of T+1.
The overnight accounting provisionally debits the account with what is called an AM entry; effectively earmarking the funds.
Clearing Bank B now spends a considerable part of day T+2 deciding whether to pay or not the cheques that have been drawn on its customers’ accounts. These decisions are a mixture of computer based and human based decisions. They fall into two categories.
In our hypothetical case, the person who paid Hero has insufficient funds on his account so the bank decides to return the cheque to Hero. If the account had had enough money the clearing cycle would have stopped here. The next steps are illustrated by dotted lines in the diagram below.
Clearing Bank B, towards the end of T+2, having decided that the cheque paid to Hero is to be returned, has to physically locate it among the thousands of cheques processed. A sorting process takes place creating piles of unpaid cheques, one for each of the other clearing banks. These piles are then put in a van to go to Central Exchange to be returned to the other clearing banks.
Some banks do not use this “Centralised Unpaids Out” model but rather make the pay/no pay decisions in branches and sort out the cheques to be unpaid in the branches as well. In these cases the branch returning the cheques posts them to Clearing Bank A by first class mail.
Whether the cheque is returned via the Central Exchange or via post it is handled as part of “Unpaids In” at Clearing Bank A on day T+3. Clearing Bank A reads the code line of the returned cheques and uses the sort code, account number and cheque numbers as a key to identify the account that received the credit for the cheque amount. Once identified, the account is debited on the night of T+3 for the amount of the cheque, thus reversing the credit posted a few days earlier.
The above paragraphs form a high level description of the cheque clearing process which is a small industry in its own right. Aspects that have not been covered are:
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